Negotiated Re-orienting: A Theory Generated through International Collaborative Research...

Tom Andrews, University of Cork, Ireland Introduction The theory presented here was generated from a research project that involved researchers in five countries.  To our knowledge, this is the first classic grounded theory generated by such an international collaborative effort.  This article starts by describing the collaborative process, then the theory is presented. The project This research project was co-ordinated by researchers in the United Kingdom (UK).  They were quantitative researchers, quite unfamiliar with qualitative research in general, but decided to use grounded theory without any knowledge of the methodology other than being aware that it is effective at generating theory.  I was invited to join the project and together with colleagues from Brazil, Germany, Ireland, Palestine, and the UK, we held our first meeting in the UK.  It became clear that everyone had a different view as to what GT is.  The Brazilians were intent on using constructionist GT, the Germans advocated that situational analysis GT should be used, while the Palestinians and British did not know anything about the methodology.  To ensure that we were collecting data and doing data analysis in a similar way, I gave a presentation on classic GT.  The quantitative researchers thought of qualitative research as weak and non-scientific.  However, following the presentation, they had changed their minds and became even more convinced that classic GT was very suitable to investigate the substantive area of Intensive Care nurses’ perception of their role in end-of-life care. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and included 51 participants in five countries.  Although contrary to classic GT, this is a compromise that at least initially had to be made for the sake of the study.  Nonetheless, researchers in each country were encouraged to use theoretical sampling by following up on what was said at previous interviews.  The project team in each country participated in-person or via Skype in a two-day analysis workshop at the University of Surrey in order to discuss analysis of each country’s dataset.  It involved a lot of discussion and convincing others that what seemed like differences were in fact not so when the data were conceptualised.  This was not surprising given the different ways that researchers were approaching analysis.  This proved to be a very effective way of analysing and agreeing on the core and other categories.  Memos with supporting quotes and full transcripts of three interviews from each country were prepared and circulated to all team members.  Researchers in each country independently read all of the transcripts and coded them separately, looking for patterns. An additional two meetings took place in the UK, in person or via Skype where the team discussed patterns relating to the core category.  Following these two meetings, a template was circulated with sections of memos and interviews from each country in order to reach consensus.  At the team meeting in Ireland we finalised the core concept and discussed dissemination of the results. The theory Nurses’ main concern in Intensive Care end-of-life care is to shift the emphasis from active treatment to palliative care.  However, this is problematic given the uncertainty surrounding prognosis.  Patients in ICU are often in what Glaser and Strauss (1967) referred to as uncertain death and unknown time when the question will be resolved.  This idea is central through negotiated re-orienting.  The shift from uncertainty to a greater certainty of impending death implies that activities orientate to curing are now ending and replaced by activities prompted by the dying process.  Nurses actively seek to bring this...

Intellectual Autonomy of PhD Researchers who use the Grounded Theory Methodology...

Andy Lowe, PhD, Thailand Abstract The decision to choose the grounded theory methodology (GT) for one’s PhD research should never be done lightly, as outlined in Glaser (2015).  The emergence of a researcher’s own intellectual autonomy is often of more importance than the research itself. Intellectual autonomy can be fostered perpetually and spasmodically. Keywords: intellectual autonomy, grounded theory, perpetual fostering, investigating, negotiating. Perpetual fostering Intellectual autonomy can be fostered perpetually in three main ways; discovery of “voice”, investigating, and negotiating. Intellectual autonomy involves the discovery of one’s own “voice” without arrogance but with humility. The PhD researcher should never bury missteps in the PhD thesis.  Instead write about them and explain how they arose and then the means with which they were dealt.  The formal acknowledgement of these errors is always an indicator for the PhD committee that researcher’s intellectual autonomy has emerged. The process of intellectual autonomy begins when the researcher starts understanding, by discovering his own “voice”, by critically reading the published works of others.  The researcher has to delve beyond the descriptive narrative and begin to tease out the more fundamental deep-seated concepts that underpin the research of others.  This approach will also reveal the line of argument being used by various authors.  Glaser (1978) emphasized the importance of the GT researcher being able to develop theoretically sensitivity.  Put very simply, this means that the researcher has to go directly to the ideas and concepts that underpin the research. Investigating Before embarking on any PhD research, it is the researcher’s task to demonstrate his intellectual autonomy by using due diligence. It is the duty and responsibility of the researcher to choose the location where the GT PhD will be registered.  This issue is not just administrative; this is because the researcher should be cautious of naively assuming that all research environments are likely to be equally competent and intellectually stimulating. Find a university that is tolerant of an inductive research design. The dominant research paradigm in academia is the deductive hypothesis approach.  Many universities automatically assume that all PhDs will always follow this path.  This has the potential to be problematic for the GT PhD researcher because GT research is principally an inductive research method. An online research will reveal the attitude of different universities to inductive research based PhDs.  Be wary of universities who compel PhD researchers to use the identical chapter headings and structure regardless of the type of research method being employed.  Do remember that what is considered to be the appropriate structure of a PhD is highly variable even at the same university.  If a PhD researcher is already signed up to a university with an inflexible system, it still might be possible to do a GT PhD.  The workaround is called “the retro fitted PhD”.  Here the GT PhD researcher faithfully follows the tenets of the authentic GT research method that will result in a robust core variable.  Then return to the rigid PhD structure that the university has imposed on the research and repackage the legitimate GT PhD research into the thesis format retrospectively.  However, what frequently happens is that when the supervisors read the GT research they often are so impressed by the research that they find ways in accepting the authentic GT PhD structure. The Conventional full-time PhD Younger novice researchers may wish to opt for a PhD process that pays the annual registration fee as well as income from teaching at a university. Apart from the obvious...

Patterns of Theoretical Similarity

Kara L. Vander Linden, Saybrook University, USA Abstract Classic grounded theories explicate patterns of behavior used by individuals within a substantive area to address problematic areas that they are working to address.  Through the brief examination and explanation of two classic grounded theories conducted by the author, overlapping patterns of theoretical similarity are discussed despite the theories’ emergence from different substantive areas. The future development of formal grounded theories from these and other substantive grounded theories is discussed. Keywords: theoretical similarity, grounded theory, navigating new experiences, surviving the complexity. Years of conducting classic grounded theory (CGT) research and overseeing CGT research by doctoral students have reinforced Glaser’s (1978) statement that “The goal of grounded theory is to generate a theory that accounts for a pattern of human behavior which is relevant and problematic for those involved” (p. 93).  Due to the theoretical nature of the patterns of behavior discovered, theories developed using CGT often depict overlapping patterns of behaviors and concepts despite emerging from different substantive areas. This article will exemplify this by examining two CGT studies conducted by the author in two different substantive areas: adult learning experiences and grandparent-headed households.  First, a summary of each study will be provided.  Then a discussion of areas of theoretical similarity between the two studies will be presented. Finally, next steps in the development of formal grounded theories are presented. Navigating new experiences Navigating (Vander Linden, 2005) explains three cyclical stages of going through a new experience and factors that may affect the process.  In the mapping stage, people engage in locating (assessing one’s location in relation to a goal), surveying (information gathering), and plotting (creating a plan).  In the embarking stage, people move through the experience using normalizing (creating a new normal) and strategizing (overcoming obstacles encountered).  In the reflecting stage, people reflect on the experience.  These stages are affected by properties of the experience (complexity, newness, structure and control, a catalyst, etc.) and factors that affect the person (emotions, goals, competency, obligations, perception, perspective, modus operandi, etc.). Surviving the complexity Surviving the complexity (Tompkins & Vander Linden, 2016) is a survival process of taking on the caregiving role and doing what one can despite multiple factors that make the situation difficult.  The theory introduces three types of complexity: situational, relational, and emotional.  Throughout the process, the caretaker engages in surviving behaviors to do what he/she can within a complex situation.  The process begins with a trigger event (tragic or destabilizing) that leads to the caregiver (parent) abdicating the role to another.  Stage 1, rescuing, is engaging in temporary, emergency action (helping-out, stepping-in, and taking-in) to save others from harm.  Within rescuing the new caregiver engages in adjusting (figuring out the new role and aspects contributing to the complexity of the situation) and accepting (coming to terms with the situation).  Rescuing ends as the new caregiver is faced with the decision to abdicate the role or move to stage 2, taking-on, where the caregiver consciously commits to take-on the caregiver role and the inherent complexity it brings for a longer duration. While taking on, the caregiver engaged is quieting the chaos (bringing order to confusion through stabilizing and normalizing), doing one’s best, and problem solving. Areas of commonality Both theories identify common patterns of behavior used by individuals resolving problematic aspects within the substantive area and factors that influence these behaviors.  Significant concepts that emerged in common between the two theories included: complexity, emotions, power and control, obstacles and problem...

Rethinking Applied Economics by Classic Grounded Theory: An Invitation to Collaborate...

Olavur Christiansen, University of Faroe Islands Introduction The heading of this paper refers to an issue that so far remains unaddressed by classic grounded theory (CGT) researchers. The aim of this paper is to take a closer look at the accordance between the CGT methodology and the field of applied economics (economic policy-making). The goal is NOT to present a finished theory; the purpose is to briefly discuss the main concern and to suggest some possible properties of the recurrent solution of the main concern (the core variable) within the field of applied economics. The paper is based on some open coding of sampled data. These data came from interviews with leading politicians with economic responsibilities, memoirs, and published diaries of leading economic politicians, and a selection of popular books written by leading economists. The procedure of memo writing has been used to a limited extent, but no sorting of memos has been made. Selective coding has not yet begun. This means that the work is far from finished. It has hardly begun. Thus, it is far from possible to present an entire classic grounded theory. I can only present some initial theory bits that relate to the discovered main concern. This paper is also an invitation to collaborate, see the epilogue. Two most different methodological approaches The methodological approach of generating and presenting economic theory by classic grounded theory (CGT) is very different from the conventional economic approach. Neoclassic and keynesian economics are both normative. These approaches focus on what should be done, and how. Mainstream economics is based on the assumption that the behaviour of economic agents follows the rule of “rational choice” (optimizing), and that the actual behavior of economic agents should follow this rule. CGT methodology on the other hand is not normative in the same sense. Use of the CGT methodology means that focus will be on actual behavior (what people actually do) and how to explain this actual behavior. No apriori assumptions are made regarding this actual behavior. Discoveries regarding this actual behavior that are grounded in the data may be used at a later stage as a guideline for problemsolving within the field of study (i.e., as “grounded action”). “Schools” of economics A distinction can be made between present-day mainstream economics (typically neoclassic and neoclassic-keynesian synthesis) and different smaller schools of what we can call “minorstreams economics”. These “streams” can typically be identified by the journals, where the respective research is published. One illustrative example of such a “minorstream” is the approach of Daniel Bromley (2006).  Bromley challenges the prevailing economic assumption of “rational choice” of economic agents (optimization), and he offers an alternative evolutionary model of pragmatic human action, where individuals “work out” their desired choices and actions, as they learn what choices are available. Bromley’s methodological perspective of “volitional pragmatism” builds on the work of Charles Sanders Peirce and his abductive approach. For Bromley (2006), the most fundamental human need is not eating, drinking or obtaining shelter, but concerns “what to believe” (Ibid). Nevertheless, Bromley’s approach just replaces the “rational” choice assumption with the assumption of “volational pragmatism” – i.e. so far, the methodology is not so different from the mainstream. Methodologies: Better or worse? Despite this difference of methodological approaches, it would be too brash to claim that the CGT approach is better or worse compared to other approaches. CGT is just different. From the perspective of a CGT researcher, CGT also becomes justified because it is “different”. That...

Grounded Theory: Study of Aboriginal Nations

Gary L. Evans, University of Prince Edward Island, PEI, Canada Abstract Recently, Elers (2016) published an article stating the importance of using Classical Grounded Theory (CGT) when researching indigenous populations.  This article puts forward CGT as a viable and necessary tool for researching this complex subject as it requires researchers to utilize multiple data sources and, as in this particular project, can be used by multiple disciplinary teams. Canada has much to do to rebuild the trust of the indigenous people of Canada. CGT shows promise as a methodology that gets to the root of the issues and offers one of the best opportunities to develop a theory that can be part of the constructive healing process going forward. Keywords: Aboriginal, indigenous, TRC, labour readiness, grounded theory, research teams. Introduction The project started eight months ago and continues to be a work in progress.  This short analysis provides some insights of the challenges and importance of classical grounded theory (CGT) for a critical area of Canadian research.  It is not possible to highlight all the findings at this stage therefore the purpose of this paper is to put forward some of the lessons learned. The first and most important lesson to be shared is Glaser’s dictate that “All is Data” (Glaser, 2007). Study outline The study started with a call from a Canadian research government funded agency looking at pathways to improve education and labour opportunities for Aboriginal youth.  The process required interviews and focus groups to be conducted across a region.  Concurrently some team members explored literature looking for existing and past insights of specific challenges and opportunities for education and employment.  The research team consisted of professors from different universities and backgrounds. The team included Psychology, Anthropology, Education and Business researchers. The literature review material, while being collected concurrently during interviews, was not shared with the research interview teams until after the groups had completed their initial comparative analysis. One challenge faced by the research team was the diverse level of individual knowledge members had on Aboriginal culture and history. From a researcher’s perspective, the flexibility of the CGT methodology was key to researching the job and education phenomena.  Ehigie and Ehigie (2005) highlight that in certain areas of research it is important for team members to have an understanding of the participants they are studying.  As put forward by Elers (2016), indigenous research is well suited to CGT and this view is supported by his personal comment received from Barney Glaser “It is all just data with patterns in it” (Elers, 2016, p. 114) Past quantitative research of education and employment, does not answer the question, why Aboriginal education and employment levels fall far below the national average.  During data collection, it became clear the issue was complex and went beyond poor education and labour statistics.  CGT provides a framework that supports multiple data sources and allows the data to lead the researcher forward. It was important that all members approach the phenomena with an open mind and willingness to allow the data and process to drive the direction of the study.  Classic grounded theory (CGT) researchers need to ask themselves the questions: “What perspective do I represent?” and “How may this perspective influence my reading?” (Deady, 2011, p. 51) The goal of improving labour and education opportunities was the primary focus, but to understand the phenomena it is necessary to understand the history of Canadian Aboriginal people.  Since before confederation the Aboriginal people in Canada...

Complexities in Palliative Cancer Care: Can Grounded Theories be Useful to Increase Awareness?...

Anna Sandgren, Linnaeus University, Sweden This paper includes first a summary of a grounded theory “Living on hold”, which was one of four different grounded theories in my dissertation (Sandgren, 2010). The theory is then explained in relation to the other grounded theories to give an example of how different grounded theories can be integrated, which leads to an increased awareness of what is going on in a research area. Keywords: palliative cancer care, increase awareness, grounded theories, living on hold. Living on hold The aim of this study was to develop a classic grounded theory of palliative cancer patients and their relatives. Interviews and data related to behavior of patients and relatives were analyzed. Being put on hold emerged as the main concern for palliative cancer patients and their relatives. Being put on hold means that their normal existence is falling apart; normality is breaking down and with it a loss of control. Living on hold consists of three modes of behaviors: the fighting mode, the adjusting mode, and the surrendering mode. Mode being, an individual’s current mode, depends on, for example, age, personality, diagnosis and prognosis, social network, earlier experience of crisis, continuity of care, and professional competence. During the disease trajectory, there may be triggers that start a process of reconciliation that can lead to mode shifts, so modes are not fixed. No mode is better than another. The process of reconciling Regardless of mode, patients and relatives evaluate not only their lives and their current situation, but also the past and the near future. Mode shifting can happen at anytime during the disease trajectory through the reconciling process. Mode shifting triggers, such as receiving bad news, dependency experience, and feelings of uncertainty, can trigger the reconciling process and lead to a change in behavioral mode. Patients and relatives often evaluate life differently, which may lead to individuals experiencing different behavioral modes within a patient’s group. Depending on their different moods, shifting between modes can happen quickly over a short period of time, which could be energy draining for all involved. Fighting mode In the fighting mode, patients and relatives are striving to renormalize their lives; no change to their previous way of life is desired. Through renormalizing, they strive to return to normal, managing themselves, and keeping track as before. Potential powers are discovered and unrealized innate powers may emerge when needed. Rebelling means not only protecting and fighting the whole situation, but also fighting the disease. Through blaming, patients and relatives seek reasons or causes for the disease, and finding something or someone to blame. In the fighting mode, they appreciate foreseeing, since this gives them full control over life, even if it is put on hold. Since individuals are hyper-sensitive, they are scrutinizing everything around them. Adjusting mode In the adjusting mode, patients and relatives are adjusting to a new normality and to new routines. Even though they are adjusting, they do not let the disease take over or control their lives. Adjusting to a life on hold involves moment living, which means maintaining a total presence here and now and involves planning for daily life but not for the future. Disease diminishing, which means not letting the disease affect their lives, is achieved through re-routining where new routines are created. Adjusting also involves façading, which means keeping an emotional facade and staying emotionally strong. Surrendering mode There are two different ways of being in the surrendering mode: resigning, which means giving up,...